Gel Electrophoresis

Laura Gallagher Partner: Rob Einersen Biology Period D Mr. Alvarez 15 February 2013 Gel Electrophoresis Introduction: Agarose Gel Electrophoresis is a process in which the process of determining whether a strand of DNA is either positively or negatively charged. The container in which the gel is stored has a negative and positive side; whichever side the DNA molecules go to means the DNA is charged the opposite way. (Ware, Lunte, Gardiner)For example if a DNA molecule goes to the negative side that means that the DNA is positively charged and vice versa.The agarose gel is composed of a fine powder substance, water and a buffer solution. The solution must be boiled to its boiling point then you have to pour the solution into a casting mold there also needs to be a comb that leaves six holds in the mold. It must be left in the casting mold for about a half an hour for the gel to solidify. Electrophoresis has a few different uses such as establishing the size of a strand or molecule of DNA or RNA. (Bowen) It can also be used to find out family members or criminals or tests of that manner. This is all possible because of the DNA’s charge and the charge of the molds.Although if a DNA molecule is too big it is not going to be able travel fast through the so it is better for the experiment if the DNA molecules are small. To get the DNA small restriction enzymes are used. (Roberts) Restriction enzymes cut specific DNA molecules in half which helps with the travel through the gel. Before the electrophoresis machine was developed people used to use gravity to separate DNADNA molecules are going to be negative and smaller molecules are going to move farther than the larger molecules. The purpose of this lab is to learn how to create an agarose gel and properly load a well in an agarose gel.The purpose is also to learning how to use electrophoresis equipment and how to analyze the results of DNA electrophoresis. Methods and Materials: Start off, by gathering all of the necessary materials for the beginning which is 1. 2 mL of gel buffer in one graduated cylinder, in a separate graduated cylinder58. 8 mL of water and 0. 48 g of agarose powder. Next take an Erlenmeyer flask and mix all three of the substances, place the flask on a hot plate and keep swooshing the mixture in the flask. Repeat that step until the liquid in the hot plate becomes clear, make sure that the solution does not boil.Let the solution sit until it is lukewarm. Now, the molding tray should be prepared by taping off the sides with painters tape so no liquid can escape. Place the comb in the designated slot in the molding tray and pour the agarose solution into the mold tray. Now, take a graduated cylinder and pour in 8 mL of the buffer solution and 400 mL of water, then, pour it into the gel box. After the gel solidifies, with extreme caution, remove the painters tape and comb. Next, take the mold tray and place it on the table; now, take six disposable pipettes and the colo red dye from you teacher and fill each pipette with a different color.After each pipette has a different color, empty the pipette not too far in or too close to the surface of each well. Next, place the mold tray in the gel box, close the lid, and plug it in for about a half an hour. After the half an hour is up, take a couple pictures of the mold tray and the results that you saw. Results: Figure 1 Figure 2 As you see in figure 1, the dye pigments have been placed in each well and it is not perfect some of the dye have gotten out and leaked out on the top of the gel.That is okay though because the experiment was still a success because the dye pigments did move with the DNA molecules as you can see in figure 2. The dye pigments in all of the wells except for the well at the very top, all moved towards the positive side of the tray. The well at the very top contained positively charged DNA so that DNA started to move towards the negative side of the tray. Discussion: For the most pa rt, my hypothesis was correct, I was correct about the smaller particles moving further than the larger particles. I was correct and incorrect when I said that The DNA molecules are going to be negative. I as correct because five out of six were negative, although there was one that was positive so it did not go in the same direction as the other five. DNA’s direction is only influenced by one factor, which is whether the DNA is negatively or positively charged. This directly affects why the DNA moved the positive pole because DNA is negative so due to attraction it goes to the positive side of the pole. When a molecule is moving its rate of length and speed correlates with its size, if a molecule of DNA is large, it is going to be harder for it to move so it would be much easier for a small molecule of DNA to move across the gel.You can the molecules of DNA moving because they are dyed with the dye pigments. Electrophoresis causes the smaller DNA molecules to move further be cause it is easier for the positive charge to pull smaller pieces of DNA. Though, for this to happen, the power has to be turned on. Once the power is turned on it also turns on each end’s charge on each side of the tray so the DNA is attracted to that side of the tray. Most of the DNA the molecules carried a negative charge. A negative charge is carried because those molecules went towards the positive pole.Although those few molecules carried a positive charge so they went to the negative pole. The banding patterns in the gel are determined by the size of the DNA molecule. It can be interpreted as some of the DNA molecules weren’t broken down as small as others. Scientists use the number of nucleotides in one sample and it is compared to another blood sample. All of the similarities and differences add up. Also the sequences of the bases in a chain of DNA. In many murder investigations, DNA is used to find the culprit. Such as the case of James Anagnos, James was bea ten and stabbed to death in 1977 in his bar. NBC) James was holding a strand of hair that belonged to his murderer. Three decades later they compared the DNA is the strand of hair to a man named Frank Wright, it was a match. It didn’t serve any justice though, because Wright died in 2002. This is similar to the case of Priscilla Ann Blevins. Priscilla’s remains were found off an interstate and they were stored in a facility and kept under the name â€Å"Jane Doe†. (Lohr) Blevins’ genetic information was entered into a computer and it matched up with â€Å"Jane Doe† and was later confirmed with dental records.DNA helped to resolve this 37 year old cold case just like it did for the 1993 murder of Alie Berrelez. Alie was a five year old girl who was sitting in her apartment complex eating pizza when she was kidnapped. (Curry) Alie’s remains were found four days later stashed next to a creek. Nick Stofer was the main suspect but they couldnâ₠¬â„¢t arrest him because they didn’t have enough evidence against him. When this crime happened there was no such thing as DNA testing so there was no way they could prove it was him. In 2011, they compared DNA from Alie’s under to Nick Stofer and it was a match.Again Stofer died before he could stand trial, he died in 2001. Bibliography B. R. Ware,  Susan Lunte,  Kathleen Gardiner, 2012, â€Å"Electrophoresis,† in AccessScience,  ©McGraw-Hill Education, Retrieved from http://www. accessscience. com/content. aspx? searchStr=Electrophoresis&id=226400 Bowen R. , 2000, â€Å"Agarose Gel Electrophoresis of DNA†, in Colostate, Retrieved from http://arbl. cvmbs. colostate. edu/hbooks/genetics/biotech/gels/agardna. html Richard Roberts, 2012, â€Å"Restriction enzyme,† in AccessScience,  ©McGraw-Hill Education, Retrieved from http://www. accessscience. com/content. aspx? earchStr=restriction+enzymes&id=584150 2010, â€Å"Three Decade Old Murder M ystery Solved Using DNA† , in NBC California, retrieved from http://www. nbclosangeles. com/news/local/Three-Decade-Old-Murder-Mystery-Solved-Using-DNA-101944298. html Lohr D. , â€Å"After 37 Years, Priscilla Ann Blevins' Disappearance Solved Using DNA†, Huffington Post, Retrieved from http://www. huffingtonpost. com/2012/11/01/priscilla-ann-blevins_n_2059155. htmlCurry C. , 2011, â€Å"Cold Case of Murdered 5-Year-Old Alie Berrelez Solved†, ABC News, retrieved from http://abcnews. go. com/US/cold-case-year-murdered-1993-solved-dna/story? id=14510785

New Media Convergence and Audience Fragmentation and Programme Content in International Broadcasting

New Media Convergence and Audience Fragmentation and Programme Content in International Broadcasting The new media technologies have been referred to as the communication revolution due to the immense changes they have brought to mass communication and social lifestyles in past decade or so. The expression ‘new media’ has been in use since the 1960s and has had to encompass an expanding and diversifying set of applied communication technologies such the it is somehow impracticable to tell just what the ‘new media’ comprise. As far as the essential features of new media are concerned, however, the main ones seem to be: their interconnectedness; their accessibility to individual users as senders or receivers; their interactivity; their multiplicity of use and open-ended character; and their ubiquity and almost limitless extended located-ness. The new media could be said to have brought a communications revolution because it seems to have brought a revolt against mass communication and all that it used to stand for. The two main driving force of this communications revolution are satellite communication and computer technologies. The key to the immense power of the computer as a communication device lies in the process of digitalization that allows information of all kinds in all formats to be carried with the same efficiency and also in a multiplex. New means of transmission by cable, satellite and radio have immensely increased the capacity to transmit. New means of storage and retrieval including the personal video recorder, the mobile phone, CD-ROM, compact disc, DVD, etc, have also expanded the range of possibilities, and even the remote control device has played a part. The many possibilities of ‘media-making’ (camcorders, PCs, printers, cameras, etc, especially in digital form) have changed immensely the practice of journalism whether print or broadcast, such that the amateur or the professional are being bridged. There are also new kinds of ‘quasi-media’ such as computer games and virtual reality devices which seem to be overlapping with the mass media in their culture and in the satisfaction of use. The communications revolution has being of benefit to traditional media and the audience due mainly to the interactivity that has become possible. What is the nature of convergence? Convergence is the coming together of different technologies, the fusion of two or more technologies to form something new and different, something that has attributes of each but is altogether unique. The new technologies and products that result from convergence are greater than the sum of the original parts, and the two most powerful and pervasive technologies – information and media are converging. The result of convergence has been called ‘techno-fusion’. What are the differences between the old and the new? Today the differences between the old and new are difficult to distinguish partly because some media forms are now distributed across different types of transmission channels, reducing the original uniqueness of form and experience in use. Also, the increasing convergence of technology, based on digitalization, can only reinforce this tendency. Thirdly, globalization has reduced the distinctiveness of domestic content and institutions and as such content and practices are becoming global or universal though some are domesticated variants of the global. Nevertheless, there are some clear differences in terms of physical and psychosocial characteristics, in terms of perceived trust and credibility for example. Differences are obvious concerning freedom and control where the new seems to be freer and less controlled especially by government. Secondly, differences are clear concerning what each is good for and the perceived uses by individual audience members. What is New Media? New media rely on digital technologies, allowing for previously separate media to converge. Media convergence is defined as a phenomenon of new media and this can be explained as digital media. The idea of new media captures both the development of unique forms of digital media, and the remaking of more traditional media forms to adopt and adapt to the new media technologies. Convergence captures the development futures of old media and merges it with new media. Blogs, and Podcasts are all part of new media. MySpace and Facebook are part of social media (also known as viral marketing), which is a branch of new media. What is new about the new media? It is pertinent at this point to understand that a medium is not just an applied technology for transmission of certain symbolic content or of linkage among people but that it also embodies a set of social relations that interact with features of the new technology. There are some evidences that mass media have changed from the past two or three decades from the days of one-way, one-directional and undifferentiated flow to an undifferentiated mass audience due to certain features of new technology. What is new is basically due to the fact of digitalization and convergence. Digitalization is the process by which texts can be reduced to binary form and used in production, distribution and storage. Convergence is the digital linkage and symbiosis between media forms in terms of organization, distribution, reception and regulation. Mcquail (2006) has defined convergence as the process of coming together or becoming more alike of media technologies due to digitalization. The new media transcends the limit of traditional print and broadcast in the following ways: ? It enables many-to-many conversations ?It enables the simultaneous reception, alteration and redistribution of cultural products ? It dislocates communicative action beyond national boundaries bringing in the ‘death of the distance’ across the world More succinctly, what is new about the new media may be the combination of interactivity with innovative features such as, the unlimited range of content and content format, the scope of audience reach, and the global nature of communication. Other features include, that the new media are as much private and public communication and that their operation is not typically professional or bureaucratically organized to the same degree as the mass media. Another feature of the new media is that the boundaries between publisher, producer, distributor, consumer and reviewer of content are blurring, leading to a general meltdown of roles that may result in the emergence of separate, more specialized institutional complexes of media skills and activities. So, what is new? ?Digitalization ?Convergence Divergence from mass communication ?Adaptation of media roles ?Interactivity and fragmentation of audience ?Fragmentation of media organization and institution ?Reduced control Categories of new media While new media technological forms continue to multiply and diversify, there are as at now four main categories. ?Interpersonal communication media ?Interactive play media ?Information search media ?Collective participatory media Key ch aracteristics of new media The following are the key characteristics unique to the new media across the four categories. Interactivity ?Sociability ?Media richness ?Audience autonomy ?Entertainment ?User privacy ?User personalization Audience Fragmentation and Programme Content in International Broadcasting Countries and cultures have long been in communication across borders; however, in the 20th century, first radio, then television and the internet accelerated that process dramatically. National leaders are often unnerved when broadcasts or other information comes straight across borders without any chance to stop, control, or mediate it. In the 1930s and 1940s, around World War II and the cold war, radio seemed menacingly effective in propaganda across borders. Radio competitions and clashes, even some miniature cold wars of their own, erupted among a number of countries in the Asia, Middle East, Latin America, Eastern Europe and the West and USA. By contrast, broadcast television seemed comfortingly short range as it took preeminence from the late 1940s on. Satellite television was the next big technological development in international broadcasting. As early as the 1960s controversies started concerning the use of this type of transmission for fear of the propaganda and intrusion into national borders. The debate culminated in a schism between the developed and the developing regions of the world concerning cultural imperialism, media imperialism and the imbalance in news flow across the globe. The global spread of satellite and cable TV channels in the 1990s has seemed to increase the outflow of American and European television programming and films to other countries. The internet has become the latest major t technology to deliver radio, television, music downloads, video downloads, films, news stories, newspapers, and new forms of content, like weblogs, across national and cultural borders. The growth of the internet in the late 1990s and 2000s has also threatened the ability of national governments to control cross-border flow of information and entertainment. The internet continues to bring a great deal of content from the USA and the West into other parts of the world. However, it also much cheaper to produce either information or entertainment for the internet, so many governments, cultures, religion, and ideologies now produce for and distribute over the internet. Governments dominated activity in international radio, despite early developments and precedents from commercial international shortwave broadcasting prior to World War II. However, it seems private actors instead of governments now dominate global television news and entertainment. What are the implications for the audience of the shift from government international radio broadcasting to private international satellite television? What of the further shift on the internet to supplement or replace the dominance of major international radio and international commercial TV? What of the implications of the fact that most radio audiences today tend to be quite localized, given a choice, particularly with the spread of higher fidelity stereo FM broadcasts, which deliver the best available radio sound quality but seldom cover more than a limited urban area? What are the motivations for broadcasting internationally? Four major reasons have been adduced for both state-run and private organizations transmitting directly across borders: to enhance national or organizational prestige; to promote national or organizational interests; to attempt religious, ideological or political indoctrination; and to foster cultural ties. When governments are the primary actors as it is here, the goal is often summed up as public diplomacy. That is the deliberate effort by governments to affect foreign public opinion in a manner that is positive to their goals. Public diplomacy may be defined as the influencing in a positive way the perceptions of individuals and organizations across the world. Another perspective on this sees motivations in terms of: being an instrument of foreign policy, as a mirror of society, as symbolic presence, as a converter and sustainer, as a coercer and intimidator, as an educator, as an entertainer, and as a seller of goods and services. Evidence of the importance that governments attach to international broadcasting can be found in their total commitment to funding and support using diverse models as may be found in BBC, VOA, Radio Moscow, RFI, etc. Similarly, as the internet now permits a greater variety of players to broadcasting, many more have entered to pursue all or some of similar goals. Why audiences listen or view across borders? According to the categories of listening motivations listed by Boyd (1996) as cited by Straubhaar and Boyd (2003), audiences tune in to hear news and information, to be entertained, to learn, to hear religious or political broadcast, to enhance their status, to protest, or to pursue a hobby. Concerning the question of media effects on audience in international broadcasting, the available studies show that the effects of international radio broadcasting are relatively limited. Nevertheless, there are at least some historical cases in which international radio as part of public diplomacy had considerable impact. Radio Free Europe clearly had a role in fomenting the Hungarian uprising of 1956. The USA conducted ‘radio wars’ against Cuba and Nicaragua fomenting refugee flight if nothing else. The use of radio in international broadcasting is changing decisively; however, as most of the services are moving away from transmitting on shortwave radio and moving towards re-broadcasting or re-transmitting on leased local FM facilities and also supplementing these efforts by web casting. Today, international radio broadcasters tend to put their signals out as streaming audio feeds on the internet. International radio is also sometimes sought by those who do not trust the local or national media readily available to then. This and other factors may be affecting the international audience in the direction of fragmentation. Few international broadcasters today have anything resembling a mass audience, instead they have fragments of core listeners of viewers who are attracted by tradition or habit or interests in specific programming such as news, music, documentaries, sports and so on. Audience Fragmentation in International Broadcasting The rise of new media has brought the question of audience fragmentation and selective exposure to the front burner of concerns by the broadcast media. This is because audience fragmentation has emerged as the inevitable consequence of audience diversity based on diversity of participation and reception that have been enhanced immensely by the convergence of media technologies. Audience fragmentation may also be due to diversity of media content and the loyalty or otherwise of the audience to these various programmes. In the same way there are many broadcast channels and stations even at the external broadcasting level such that loyalties may have become fragmented over the multitude of international stations available to the audience. The array of broadcast options available to the audience may have thus created a remarkable degree of audience fragmentation. There has been created a new multi-platform world due to the convergence of new media. For example, the number of listeners or viewers who now use their PCs or mobile phones for monitoring the newscast instead of waiting for specific time periods of broadcast from their station of choice usually on traditional media may be increasing as more and more people adopt several new media options available to them. Such fragments of listeners or viewers may actually replace their traditional media channels with the ones they now have in multimedia. Some viewers now choose to watch news highlights on the web at their convenience rather than the scheduled news cast they used to frequent. Traditional broadcasters cannot afford to ignore cable and satellite operators as well as the web, mobile and other alternative distribution channels who may have contributed to the fragmentation of their traditional audience. Today media scholars and practitioners have continued to debate whether the mass audience really exists any more or whether mass audience has not become a myth. This issue or question persists because they challenge them to re-think presumed givens of the past while also providing a framework within which to examine the undeniable evidence of fragmentation of the broadcast audience today. As information and communication technologies increasingly become available and affordable to people and are more widely adopted news and current affairs media may have to strategize on ow to move away from being mass media to media targeting and specific niche programming and distribution. The external channel may have to do some audience research to find out what type of audience are disengaging form their traditional media and for what reasons. So also the world-view of such audience may have to be ascertained and embedded in programme content so as to attract the audience. Other forms of distrib ution that may compliment the traditional may have to be considered and appropriated. How to view and review the audience against the backdrop of fragmentation? Any evaluation of audience should start with a disturbing doubt about the continuing validity of the term. On the threshold of an era in which pressing a button summons any song, stock number or movie episode on display anywhere in the house and ‘grazing’ and ‘on demand’ viewing or listening replace the regular traditional listening or viewing habits. The notion of audience as a community or solidarity group, or as a form of involvement in a text which one has not summoned or invented oneself, a text that can surprise, becomes problematic. The danger to audiences posed by their disembodiment into individual dreams bubbles, or their disappearance into time-shift recorders who never find time to listen or view, is not as close as the technologies that allow it. The conditions underlying identity, sociality and community are slower to change than technologies. We know that the world cup or the English league or the Olympic Games find us attending as faithful audience members, be it within the community, the nation or even the globe. These examples however suggest that the term ‘audiences’ is too general. Fans may be more fitting in the case of football, and ‘public’ in the case of an al-Qaida attack. But, whether listening or viewing as we used to know it is seriously threatened, the acutely destabilizing transformations of communication technologies suggest that the concept of ‘audience’ should be studied in tandem with its counterpart: the dominant media and genre it faces. Those changing technologies also suggest that the way in which audiences are situated – is everyone listening or viewing at the same content, are they listening or viewing alone or together, are they talking or silent, is the transmission live or recorded – is inseparable from characteristics of the media they interact with, marked by their technological and institutional characteristics, and the ways in which they perceive their consumers. The larger picture suggests that the contemporary media environment holds two types of threats to audiences. One is the abundance of what is offered, chasing viewers or listeners to an endless choice of niche channels or stations and time-shift options which may operate as a boomerang pushing us to turn on good old broadcast radio or TV and find out what is on. The second threat is the internet. It has been contended that internet user are not really ‘audiences’ as it can not be seen as an electronic mass medium but rather as an umbrella, multi-purpose technology, loaded with a broad range of disparate communication functions, such as shortcutting mediators in the management of daily life. In reality the internet fosters audiences but goes beyond that to provide a myriad of services that may not be in the mode of mass communication especially as it does not fulfill the need of listening or viewing texts over which audiences have no direct control and /or texts that enable the suspending of unbelief. Assuming that in spite of the dramatic transformation in the media environment, audiences are still alive, so do the technologies that nurture them , what follows is a review of the changes undergone by mass media audiences and the ways in which these changes were defined. A very useful scheme to define audiences categorizes them into three: citizens, consumers and jugglers. The audience is categorized thus based on the historical progression of broadcasting through three eras, moving from ‘scarcity’ to ‘availability’ to ‘plenty’. Each phase carries an image of the audience. Scarce broadcasting addresses audiences as a unified mass of ‘citizens’ while available broadcasting addresses them as individual ‘consumers’. Today’s broadcasting of plenty seems to be addressing lonely ‘jugglers’ somewhat paralyzed by endless choice, offering listeners or viewers to either commute between isolated niches or listen or view broadcast as ‘impotent witnesses’. Ellis (2000) as cited by Straubhaar and Boyd (2003), implied that in the first era of scarcity of broadcast, radio and then TV address ‘citizens’ who in the period of availability turn into ‘consumers’ and in the phase of plenty become ‘jugglers’. The ‘citizen’ is a passive audience’ often comprising a lonely crowd subjected to broadcast directed at the mass audience as such broadcast reaches all groups uniformly, but this is soon changed to the ‘consumer’ who is an active audience who has choices and multiple interpretations and plurality of ways of getting involved and varying tastes that can be addressed. The age of plenty provides endless options for activity for the ‘juggler’ audience, but raises the issue of how such activities should be defined. Here, near endless choices weakens commitment and makes the audience to resort to juggling between competing programmes, stations or channels, or media. The monstrous dimensions of choice in this present phase may be leading in two directions. As indicated by Ellis, jugglers can choose between retreating to any obscure, esoteric, isolating niche of broadcasting or joining the citizens and /or consumers by turning to broadcast of traditional radio or TV. What is the implication of audience fragmentation for programme content? Following the identification of today’s audience as a ‘juggler’ audience due to fragmentation the main programme content strategy should border on how to retain the core listeners and viewers and provide niche programmes at the same time. This requires audience research on a more or less continuous basis. International broadcast channels may have to imitate the local FM channels that have mastered the art of creating programme formats that make them unique even where there is a proliferation. The BBC and VOA do a lot of audience research but hardly make them public but they have started utilizing re-distribution and re-transmission on local FM in some regions of world and also making their presence available on the internet and on satellite and cable. What are the prospects of new media? The new media have been widely hailed as a potential way of escape from the oppressive top-down politics of mass democracies in which tightly organized political parties make policy unilaterally and mobilize support behind them with minimal negotiation and grass-roots input. They provide the means for the provision of information and ideas, almost unlimited access for all voices and much feedback and negotiation between sender and receiver in the mass media. They promise new forums for the development of interest groups and formation of opinion, and allow social dialogue without the inevitable intervention of governmental institutions or state machineries. They promise true forms of freedom of expression that may be difficult to control by government. There is the prospect of a reduced role for professional journalist to mediate between citizen and government and to mediate in the public sphere generally. There is also the promise of absence of boundaries, greater speed of transmission and low cost of operations compared to traditional media. The biggest prospect is the ready access for all who want to speak, unmediated by the powerful interests that control the content of print and broadcast. What are the challenges? The new media are no different from the old in terms of social stratification of ownership and access. It is the better-offs that can access and upgrade the new technologies and they are always ahead of the working class or the poor. They are differentially empowered and if anything move further ahead of majority of the people. The new media require new skills and new attitudes to learning and working. There must be the attitude of life-long learning to catch up with new skills demanded by the pace of technological changes. There is also the issue of multi-tasking and its burden or otherwise on the users of new media technologies. Finally, there is overriding challenge of control and diminishing of the freedom of new media. References Anokwa, K. Lin, A. C. , Salwen, B. M. (2003). International Communication: Concepts and Cases. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/ Thomson. Axford, B. and Huggins, R. (eds). (2001). New Media and Politics. London: Sage. Curran, J. and Gurevitch, M. (2005). Mass Media and Society, 4th ed. London: Hodder Arnold. Jones, S. G. (2003). Encyclopedia of New Media. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Kamalipour, R. Y. (2007). Global Communication, 2nd ed. Belmont, CA: Thomson. Koelsch, F. (1995). The Infomedia Rev olution: How it is changing our world and your life. Montreal: Mcgraw-Hill Ryerson. Liebes, T. (2005). Viewing and Reviewing the Audience: Fashions in Communication Research, in Curran, J. and Gurevitch, M. (2005). Mass Media and Society, 4th ed. London: Hodder Arnold. Mcquail, D. (2006). Mcquail’s Mass Communication Theory. London: Sage. Slevin, J. (2000). The Internet and Society. Cambridge: Polity. Straubhaar, D. J. and Boyd, D. A. (2003). International Broadcasting, in Anokwa, K. , Lin, A. C. , Salwen, B. M. International Communication: Concepts and Cases. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/ Thomson.

Essay on Analysis of an Advertising Campaign - 2012 Words

Analysis of an Advertising Campaign We are swarmed by advertising. Companies constantly battle to compete for the sale of their product. Adverts appear in every form of media including radio; television; Internet; billboards; newspaper; flyers and magazines. The advertiser wants us to buy their product above their competitors. The basic aim of advertising is to convince the target audience that their product is the best in the field and superior to the other products of similarity. This should increase demand. Sometimes, to prove they are better than their rivals, companies actually compare statistics in adverts. This is allowed if the comparisons are factual evidence. Another tactic†¦show more content†¦The first advert in the series is set at a diving competition. The format is as follows: three competitors are taking part. The first contestant approaches and takes his dive; we perceive a side angle view. As he hits the water the angle changes to a bird’s eye view, this creates an aura of professionalism. His dive appears to be excellent and the narrator makes a positive remark. The tens ion begins to gather as the narrator gives a running commentary, also giving a sense of realism. As the Canadian contestant approaches for his dive, the same professional camera angles are used as were for the Austrian. This dive appears to be even better than the first and scores highly. The third and final British contestant is Peter Kay. As he approaches the camera angle gives a full frontal view of his physique, which looks rather unfit and inappropriate for a diver. Instead of doing a professional dive he ‘dives bombs’ into the water creating a big splash, this symbolises ‘no-nonsense’ being straight to the point and no complex moves. Then scoring maximum 10 points. The commentator shows enthusiasm and the audience is elated as Kay leaves the pool exposing his posterior that is contrasted against a close up of a ‘perfect pint’ and a distant shot of ‘not so perfect’ Peter Kay and his bottom. With this close up of john smiths and long shot of PeterShow MoreRelatedAdvertising Campaign Analysis : Apple Essay1986 Words   |  8 PagesAdvertising Campaign Analysis Journal 2 Apple 1. Conducting the Situation Analysis Apple is an American multinational company that produces computer software, cell phones, personal computers, and other electronic products for consumers. Some well-known Apple products include: the iPhone, the iPod, the iPad, and the Macintosh line of computers. 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Essay Comparing Hemingways A Very Short Story and...

Comparing Hemingways A Very Short Story and Fitzgeralds This Side of Paradise nbsp; When you first read a tragic, melodramatic love scene you feel like your heart is breaking too. Sometimes you cry. It is only after the initial rush of feelings that you begin to feel cheated. Usually the kind of writing that gives you the urge to be demonstrative does not stay with you as long as something more subtle. In Scott Fitzgeralds This Side of Paradise, the reader is presented with such a love scene in the form of a play. I admit to having sobbed for a solid minute after reading about the ill-fated romance between Amory Blaine and Rosalind Connage. However, the same subject, with different characters, told in a much more concise,†¦show more content†¦One of the ways that Hemingway achieves this is that his sentences alternate between dealing with a very small detail or specific moment and moving the story through long periods of time. In the opening paragraph of the story, Hemingway paints the picture of one night at the hospital. He takes time to note that there w ere chimney swifts in the sky. Later on we skip through his entire experience when he returns to the war, seeing the period only in terms of the girl. Hemingway can move through time quickly in the story without losing the thread of the narrative. There is nothing in the story that is not essential to understanding the experience of the boy and the girl. nbsp; In the Fitzgerald novel, on the other hand, there is so much extraneous material that it can be difficult to process. The twenty five page section that deals with the romance even changes style several times, moving from a play to prose and back again. There is none of the tight craftsmanship found in the Hemingway story. nbsp; Amory and Rosalinds lines are full of clicheacute;s and bright, splashy comments. The stage directions are things like, their eyes were blinded by tears, and other dramatic indications. The Fitzgerald tale is one of intense but fleeting impressions. nbsp; Another important distinction between the two stories

PROPOSAL FORM - 2037 Words

PROPOSAL FORM STRUCTURE AND PURPOSE the fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom mqondisimagagula@gmail.com What are proposal forms? ï‚ ´ A proposal form is a standard mass-prepared document by insures to the insured for the purpose of disclosing the needed material facts, it is usually the form of questions that aim the insured to provide answers. ï‚ ´ It is the most common mechanism by which the insurer receives information about risks to be insured. ï‚ ´ Proposal form stands as an offer to the insurer of which the insurer is at liberty to accept or reject. ï‚ ´ If a proposal is properly presented, and an insurer accepts it, and the premium is paid (or there is an agreement to pay the premium) a contract comes into existence. ï‚ ´ Generally a†¦show more content†¦Ã¯  ± In many cases the details from the form are transferred to a computer file and this is reflected in the style of question and response required, specifically the confining of answers to boxes. ï  ± The proposer must answer the questions given fully to the best of their belief and knowledge ï  ± Answering all the questions does not relieve the proposer of the duty to reveal material facts for which there is no question on the form the fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom Contents of a typical proposal form ï  ± Common questions across a range of insurances for b2c business: ïÆ' ¼ The name and address of the proposer, occupation and age ïÆ' ¼ Details of past claims and in some cases past or present insurances of a similar nature ïÆ' ¼ The period of time over which the insurance is required ïÆ' ¼ The basis upon which the premium will be calculated in the case of household cover this would be the sum insured for contents or buildings. ïÆ' ¼ In life assurance it would be the age of the proposer plus the sum assured. the fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom Contents of a typical proposal form ï‚ ´ For b2b insurances, general questions might include: ï‚ § The name of the proposer, this would be the corporate or business name ï‚ § The business address would be required as would the addresses of the various locations from which the company operates, and for which it may require cover ï‚ § An exact description of the trade, business or profession carried on by the proposer would beShow MoreRelatedFree Cash Flow, Issuance Costs, And Macroeconomics Risk6500 Words   |  26 Pagescorrespondence to Qiaozhi Hu, Boston University Questrom School of Business, 595 Commonwealth Ave, Boston, MA 02215, USA; telephone: (732)809-1105. 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Design and Implementation of Simulation †Free Samples to Students

Question: Discuss about the Design and Implementation of Simulation. Answer: Introduction This report is about role of artificial intelligence (AI) in shifting the balance of offense and defense in cyberspace with debate on the fact that whether cyberspace at present is offensive or defensive in nature (Ramchurn et al., 2012). The following report consist of two examples of application of artificial intelligence which is applied to software or network security. A proper analysis has been carried out on estimating the impact of AI which will affect the balance of offense and defense in cybersapce. Two of popular technologies that is artificial intelligence and machine learning has been discussed in details. At the present the popular issue which is being faced by various organization is the theft of information (Obrst, Chase and Markeloff., 2012). Autonomous malware is established by making use of methods or techniques of machine learning. Various experts round the globe are working on the idea of reducing the effect of one AI system over another AI system. Hacking which is possibly achieved by this system creates a path or way for altering the direction of original system and has the power and capability to easily access data containing vital or important information. Offensive cyber security will play an important role in changing or altering various methods of protection of threat (Goztepe, 2012). As there is rapid increase in the connectivity of devices with the various technologies like cloud, development of application and many other technologies have established a platform for different attackers and has forced the defenders in checking more parameters. When AI is implemented to various security problems then it can help in prevention of various cyber-attacks and helps in protection of privacy. Offense defense theory better known as theory of dilemma is a positive theory which is based on various international politics (Scherer., 2015). This theory depends on six factors namely mobility, protection, communication, firepower, dete ction and logistics. Role of AI in offense and Defense balance Artificial intelligence and machine learning technologies are used now days used widely all over the globe. Many of this advanced technology have benefited the society. Due to the advancement in machine learning computing power, collection of data and capacity of storage also increases. In respect to cyber security the new methods and weakness can be easily analyzed to overcome the problem of further attacks in near future. Over a time, information security has been considered to be a war between man and machine (Demertzis and Iliadis, 2015). Development of Artificial intelligence is now moving the fight towards a new concept that is machine vs machine. Now a day the most important issue is the theft of information. Autonomous malware is made by using some methods of machine learning and it is capable of collecting and broadcasting of data of that system. It has also power to remain undetected for several years. This type of system threat is also known as adaptive malware. It is cons idered to be insecure or dangerous as it can be train to behave like a solider which has track location, focus on target and wait for the best moment to attack. It is considered to be dangerous when it is platform independent (Pathan, 2014). The most severe threat of handling over security of Artificial system is the amount of damage which can easy take place at the time of data breach. The present experts mainly focus on minimizing the impact which an AI system can bring to other AI system. Hacking which is made possible through this system provides the malware an opportunity to change the path of original system and can even access data. Computers are designed in such way that it can perform various task like analyzation of network traffic. Cyber security specialist can emphasize on designing of algorithm and making an analysis of emergency threats. Cyber threats are becoming complex day by day. Gathering of data which breaches, malware and phishing is now not enough. Rather than this new method will focus on identification of pattern with abnormal activity. Some firms can have AI power tools for speeding up of different process (Pistono, and Yampolskiy, 2016). Keeping oneself ahead of different hackers will help the organization in taking necessary steps during an emergency. Artificial intelligence can be designed in such a way it can act like white blood cells with antibodies which can neutralize threats which are out of pattern instead of shutting down the whole system. This methodology can be beneficial in curing of adaptive malwares which is discussed above. In this way the system can easily learn from past experience and can become stronger to this attack which is similar to an organism which has been exposed to diseases and it and overcoming of it. Cybersecurity when powered by artificial intelligence can be considered to be a natural way in protection of important data. There is an ongoing race between attackers and secure system builders. At present both the parities are building their data and upgrading their system. This is considered to be an ongoing process which consist of multiple layers and is not a onetime action. Cyberspace is offensive or defensive in nature Offensive cyber security will play a key role in shifting various strategy of threat and protection. Shift is taking place at this very moment because as the market is growing there is increase in threat which will ultimately affect all the users. Evolution of security has many problems like twist and turns. In many cases it is seen that technology playing a key role while on the contrary behaviors, weakness and motivation of people generally represent opportunity for advancement and positioning (Dandurand, and Serrano, 2013). This concept is equally applicable to attackers as well as defenders. Defenders generally focuses in maintaining confidentiality, integrity in an appropriate way which is generally considered to be cost effective way. Over long period of time the game was considered to be simple. Attackers generally work in such a way that it can damage network, system, software and people so that it can achieve goals. Defenders work in such a way that they easily exploit the a ttackers and helps in keeping the environment safe and secure. They generally focus to look into the electronic ecosystem under their guidance to build proper defense system by using proper methods (Chen, Abercrombie and Sheldon., 2015). With the continuous upgradation and use of technology which is becoming a platform for attackers to harm the user. As the connectivity of devices are increasing at rapid rate with the help of cloud connectivity, application development and other technology has created platform for various attackers and it has forced the defenders to analyze more parameters (Peel and Clauset, 2015). The attackers in many cases use certain tools and software for maintaining their position in the market. They collaborate with each other to develop harmful softwares. Security organization round the globe never develop offensive technologies as it would create bad image. They generally focus on working with defensive techniques (Syed et al., 2016). Hackers are those peop le which are involved in attacking of networks, assets and system of an organization. They are generally considered to be untrustworthy by various security community and hackers. Offensive security is making a revolution in the game and changing the social and economic models. This will ultimately result in dangerous and creation of more complex environment for the entire world. Offensive security generally focuses on fact of taking the fight to the enemy and making a control over the field where the battle is going to take place. Such things can operate in a various number of ways like blocking the access, making a compromise with the system and manipulation. Various business organization round the globe have put down the idea of investing in organization which has goal of developing malwares as they think that bringing harm to others is not considered to be good for any ongoing business (Yampolskiy, and Spellchecker., 2016). On contrary many investors have invested a lot of money in this market which has ultimately impact their reputation in the industry. In the year of 2011, various government bodies of the globe realized that everything is connected to the internet which is inclusive nuclear sites, stock markets, telecommunication, and many other things. Various American bodies have declared cyberspace as the fifth platform for war after land, sea, air and space. They have also made an announcement about the idea of including open investment, adaptation which has been included in structure of defense. Defense bodies of many organization have been recruiting various hackers and finding proper talent which can be used in case of emergencies. Investment in the cybersecurity is found to be good if its only for correct or right consumers. In the end it is concluded that various business, individual and computers depends on systems for their everyday work and they will be largely affected by directly and indirectly methods in case of security breaches. AI applied to software or network security When artificial intelligence is applied to security then it can help in prevention of cyber-attacks and protection of privacy. Cyber-attacks: Various software which power our systems is generally subjected to error in code as well as problem in security which can be exploited by various human hackers. There is requirement of systems which tackle errors as well as defend various incoming attacks. AEG stands for automatic exploit generation is considered to be the first end to end system which is designed for automatic exploit generation (Yampolskiy, and Spellchecker., 2016). It is developed for off the shelf as well as ERP software whose use has been increased in various smart devices and appliances. AEG is very useful in analyzing Bugs which are errors in softwares that can easily result in unexpected result for security breaches. If any issue of security breach is found then bot will automatically produce a control over it. Algorithm of automated signature generation will have input of collection of exploits and will provide output as intrusion detection system (IDS) which help in recognition of proper expl oits. Previously signature depended solution does not help us a lot in detection of cybersecurity attacks. There a wide variety of cyber-attacks and signature based system are considered as an issue at present. Cyber security defense will be used by machine which will help in detection and interaction without the involvement of human beings. Various well-known bodies like CSAIL (MIT computer science and artificial intelligence laboratory) and PatternEx which is a well-known machine learning startup have jointly developed a platform known as AI2 and by the help of this system they can easily predict cyber-attacks much better than existing system by the help of continuous new upgradation from various human experts. This technology works continuously by providing a chain of feedback between AI systems and various human analyst. This technology is known as Active contextual modelling and is easy to learn. Protection of privacy: Apple during one of its conference clearly stated about the idea of using various privacy methods for maintaining privacy of customers. On the contrary it aims in keeping an eye on the value of various data to provide better customer experience. Various methods of privacy have been already discussed but this new method is considered to be best. Various methods of privacy protection provide new ways for securing data on the network. This type of technology can be used for finding patterns or tracking of terrorist in a given population (Yampolskiy, and Spellchecker., 2016). The problem of data mining and privacy are considered to be bit complex because technologies like data mining and machine learning creates a threat on different personal and privacy laws. Good policies are taken to be key in long term development of various machine learning softwares. In many cases it is seen that data is accidentally or intentionally mined by various analyst across different industries. Offense and Defense theory Offense and theory is also known as security dilemma theory is a positive and confident theory of international politics. This theory generally emphasizes that when defense has advantage over offense then major wars can be easily avoided. In the past years the theory has played a vital role in maintaining international scholarship and putting a check on various foreign policies. Offensive defense logic can also be used to narrate the cause behind world war 1 (Nagarajan et al., 2012). It also explains the reason behind effective control which can easily minimize the risk races of arms and war across globe. In the beginning offense defense theory requires ratio of cost of force required by attacker to the cost involved by defender force. This explanation of the theory can be useful for offense defense theory because its balance aims in providing essential connection across state of power and various military bodies (Jakobson., 2013). It generally emphasizes for choosing best techniques for attack and defense. This theory in general requires various assumption as it emphasizes on effects of issues and opportunity stated by various bodies from international environments. As a result, decision does affect balance of offense and defense, on the contrary poor or bad choices about military things or forces will affect different military bodies. The shortfall presents the lack of military skills which will not change the balance of offense and defense (Okimoto et al., 2013). Offense and defense theory sets up a term known as broad approach for analyzing the balance of offense and defense. Many analysts round the globe have stated that military technology and geography are only two factors which balances the theory. The cost ratio of offense to defense is inclusive of various definition of offense and defense balance. Among these things offense has some advantage like it is easier to destroy or damage others army and capture the territory and defending its own one, defender has encouraged the attacker to make investment in various offensive forces. It is preferred to be analyze offense and defense balance as the ratio of cost of force which the attackers need to take the territory to the cost involved in the defender forces (MacDonald and Kuehn., 2012). The balance of offense and defense plays a vital role in combining various power and skills in analyzing a state of military techniques and ability for determining the potential capability of military which will be helpful for maintaining security as well as achieving non-secure aims and goals (Medvedev, 2015). The balance can be helpful in achieving disparities in various of resources of state. In case of large advantage of defense, a state whic h is smaller than this can be helpful in achieving proper defense. Imbalance in power can sometimes lead to effect the balance of offense and defense. Now if the defense has large advantage then a wealthier attack can be effective to a defender by a small portion to have proper offensive ability (Yi-yan, 2012). Any definition or explanation of offense and defense irrespective of dependence on cost ratio generally needs a number of specification and assumption without which balance cannot be defined and properly explained. Cost ratio of attacker to defender is not properly defined until and unless the cost of fighting which has attacker has incurred. This is due to the fact that cost of forces need to capture territory depends cost involved in fighting which the attacker has to bear or incur (Saltzman, 2013). This mainly relates to the point or idea that capable and costly forces will result in low cost fighting which is less than capable forces (Shaheen, 2014). A proper way or method is the put conservative methods for planning methods which is used by various defenders. Changes or adjustment in any of the factors like technology, geography, size of force and nationalism will have a significant effect of balance of offense and defense. Factor which is largely affecting the balance of offense and defense is technology (Lieber, 2014). Six major areas of technology, mobility, protection, communication, firepower, detection and logistic. Implication of geography has least effect on the factors which effec t the balance of offense and defense. Balance of offense and defense may vary on the size of forced which is being used. Nationalism effects the balance of offense and defense in two ways at first it encourages people to fight for their territory and secondly it can act as a defender during the time of war. Cumulativity of resources is a term which is used explaining after effects of war on different on various international balances of power of resources. Conclusion From the above discussion it can be easily that the report artificial intelligence is about shifting the balance of offense and defense in cybersecurity. An analysis has been made about the amount of change which the AI will bring. Two technologies namely artificial intelligence and learning technologies are being used popularly all around the globe (Lieber, 2014). Cyber security specialist is focusing on collection of designing of algorithm with proper analysis of various existing threats. Artificial intelligence is designed in such a way that it can act like white blood cells which can minimize the impact of threat without the need of shutting down the whole system. When cybersecurity is given backup by artificial intelligence it can be considered as a natural way of protecting data (Nilsson, 2012). At present offensive cybersecurity will play a vital role in making a shift in various process of protection and danger. Defenders all about focusing in the maintenance of confidentiali ty in an appropriate way which is taken to be a cost effective method. When artificial intelligence is applied to security then it can help in protection of cyber-attacks and privacy protection (Lieber, 2014). Different software which provide power to our system can easily have error in code with issue in security which can be damaged by human hackers. Apple during one of its conference narrated the idea of using different methods maintenance of privacy of various customers. Offense defense theory which is also known as security dilemma theory has been explained in details. This theory is positive and confident theory of which contains various international politics. This theory generally depends on five factors namely technology, mobility, protection, communication, firepower, detection and logistic. References Chen, Q., Abercrombie, R.K. and Sheldon, F.T., 2015. Risk assessment for industrial control systems quantifying availability using mean failure cost (MFC).Journal of Artificial Intelligence and Soft Computing Research,5(3), pp.205-220. Dandurand, L. and Serrano, O.S., 2013, June. Towards improved cyber security information sharing. InCyber Conflict (CyCon), 2013 5th International Conference on(pp. 1-16). IEEE. Demertzis, K. and Iliadis, L., 2015. A Bio-Inspired Hybrid Artificial Intelligence Framework for Cyber Security. InComputation, Cryptography, and Network Security(pp. 161-193). Springer International Publishing. Goztepe, K., 2012. Designing fuzzy rule based expert system for cyber security.International Journal of Information Security Science,1(1), pp.13-19. Jakobson, G., 2013, June. Mission-centricity in cyber security: Architecting cyber attack resilient missions. InCyber Conflict (CyCon), 2013 5th International Conference on(pp. 1-18). IEEE. Lieber, K., 2014. The Offense-Defense Balance and Cyber Warfare.Cyber Analogies, pp.96-107. MacDonald, I.A. and Kuehn, M.J., 2012. Offense and defense: microbial membrane vesicles play both ways.Research in microbiology,163(9), pp.607-618. Medvedev, S.A., 2015.Offense-defense theory analysis of Russian cyber capability(Doctoral dissertation, Monterey, California: Naval Postgraduate School). Nagarajan, A., Allbeck, J.M., Sood, A. and Janssen, T.L., 2012, May. Exploring game design for cybersecurity training. InCyber Technology in Automation, Control, and Intelligent Systems (CYBER), 2012 IEEE International Conference on(pp. 256-262). IEEE. Nilsson, M., 2012. OffenseDefense Balance, War Duration, and the Security Dilemma.Journal of Conflict Resolution,56(3), pp.467-489. Obrst, L., Chase, P. and Markeloff, R., 2012, October. Developing an Ontology of the Cyber Security Domain. InSTIDS(pp. 49-56). Okimoto, T., Ikegai, N., Inoue, K., Okada, H., Ribeiro, T. and Maruyama, H., 2013, June. Cyber security problem based on multi-objective distributed constraint optimization technique. InDependable Systems and Networks Workshop (DSN-W), 2013 43rd Annual IEEE/IFIP Conference on(pp. 1-7). IEEE. Pathan, A.S.K. ed., 2014.The state of the art in intrusion prevention and detection. CRC press. Peel, L. and Clauset, A., 2015, January. Detecting Change Points in the Large-Scale Structure of Evolving Networks. InAAAI(pp. 2914-2920). Pistono, F. and Yampolskiy, R.V., 2016. Unethical research: How to create a malevolent artificial intelligence.arXiv preprint arXiv:1605.02817. Ramchurn, S.D., Vytelingum, P., Rogers, A. and Jennings, N.R., 2012. Putting the'smarts' into the smart grid: a grand challenge for artificial intelligence.Communications of the ACM,55(4), pp.86-97. Saltzman, I., 2013. Cyber posturing and the offense-defense balance.Contemporary Security Policy,34(1), pp.40-63. Scherer, M.U., 2015. Regulating artificial intelligence systems: Risks, challenges, competencies, and strategies. Shaheen, S., 2014. Offensedefense balance in cyber warfare. InCyberspace and International Relations(pp. 77-93). Springer Berlin Heidelberg. Syed, Z., Padia, A., Finin, T., Mathews, M.L. and Joshi, A., 2016, February. UCO: A Unified Cybersecurity Ontology. InAAAI Workshop: Artificial Intelligence for Cyber Security. Yampolskiy, R.V. and Spellchecker, M.S., 2016. Artificial Intelligence Safety and Cybersecurity: a Timeline of AI Failures.arXiv preprint arXiv:1610.07997. Yi-yan, K.O.N.G., 2012. Design and Implementation of Simulation Experiment Platform for Network Offense Defense [J].Communications Technology,11, p.013.

Mobilink Telecommunications Pakistan free essay sample

This report is a result of the instructions of our teacher, Ms. Sobia Shokat. Who is conducting the course Principles of Management. This effort by the student team will serve two distinct purposes; the first is to establish a comprehensive working model of the management practices at Mobilink. The second advantage is to evaluate the organization from an independent observer’s point of view; this would result in establishing an impartial but critical analysis of the organization. This analysis would help in isolating any problem areas with in the organization that might have crept into its day to day affairs. The report starts off with a brief profile of the organization. It then looks at Mobilink’s parent firm, Orascom Telecom and what values Mobilink have inherited from this multinational telecommunications company. It then looks at the company mission statement, its vision and its core values. Then the report looks at the key management functions of planning, organizing, staffing, leading and controlling. We will write a custom essay sample on Mobilink Telecommunications Pakistan or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Then the student team attempts to undertake a SWOT analysis of the organization under the current market and prevalent situation. Then the report looks into the strategic management of the company and how it plans to preserve its position of market leaders in the country by improving on the quality provided to its existing customers and also attracting new consumers so that the company continues to grow in the years to come. Finally the student team has attempted to put forth a list of suggestions to the management of he company so that it helps them not only the current market status of leaders in their field but also to continually grow into the future by providing ongoing value addition improved services and products to its valued customers. Another example is the Karachi to Hyderabad highway. Mobilink commuters that are traveling to and from these cities are able to enjoy the same connectivity standards while on the move. Functions of Management Planning A wise man once said Those who fail to plan, plan to fail Planning involves selecting the mission statement, objectives and the setting of courses of actions to achieves these objectives in the short run and the mission in the long run. Good plans provide a rational approach to achieving pre-selected objectives. It is basically the duty of the senior management to develop plans which if followed in letter and sprit lead to the realization of the objective and goal of the organization. Planning is concerned with the future impact of todays decisions. It is the fundamental function of management from which the other four key function branch out. The organizing, staffing, leading and controlling functions stem from the planning function. The manager is ready to organize and staffs only after goals and plans to reach the goals are in place. Likewise, the leading function, influencing the behavior of people in the organization, depends on the goals to be achieved. Finally, in the controlling function, the determination of whether or not goals are being accomplished and standards met is based on the planning function. The planning function provides the goals and standards that drive the controlling function. In Mobilink, the top management emphasizes a great deal on planning. They spend a lot of time only to plan all the organizational activities and goals and also the methods to achieve them. There are 2 different sets of planning which are done in MOBILINK which are Organizational Planning (Internal recipients) Marketing Planning (External recipients) In organizational planning, the company develops things like the vision, mission statement, the goals, the over all objectives of the organization. This also involves developing a list of alternative strategies on how to achieve these desired results. Then finally the best possible alternative is selected and a course of action is developed to follow. The organizational plans are shared – as per job description and need to know basis – with the internal components of Mobilink. That is the employees – as per their position in the corporate chain – are made aware of what the management wishes to do with the organization and how it plans to go about meeting these objectives. The Marketing plan is something that is more dynamic and market driven. The ultimate recipients of this plan, or the people at which it is directed are the customers of Mobilink. This plan is more of a guideline, a working model which the marketing department uses to come up with newer ways to attract the target audience. Types of Planning Company Mission statement The mission statement broadly identifies what the company is set out to achieve. Our mission is to be the primary telecom operator in the country, providing the best quality services to our customers, value to our shareholders, and a dynamic working environment for our employees. Company Vision This can be called the purpose of the company; it identifies the basic functions of the company Mobilink aims to not only retain its large customer base, but also provide the best possible products and services to its valued customers with continuous innovation and technology. Company Objective These are the activities towards which all the activities are aimed. Be there for you, always We speak your language Aur Sunao! Company Goal The end point of planning, and also the end point of organizing, staffing, leading and controlling Reshaping communications Company Strategy This would be the long term objectives of Mobilink, and the course of action that it takes to achieve these objectives in the short run as well as the long run. To serve the Pakistani telecommunications market effectively Company Policy The general plans or generalized laws or statements that provide a direction to creative thinking. All activities of Mobilink must adhere to the company policy. This policy is stated below Maximize profits staying the cellular phone services business of the country Company Procedure Any plan that handles the future activity of the company. These are chronological sequences of required actions that the management enforces so that the goals are met. The hiring procedures The operations procedures The way in which clients are handled The product development procedure The employee training procedure Company Rules Rules are strict actions that need to be done or avoided. They allow no discretion. Mobilink follows certain rules like no new connections will be provided to those persons that do not have the latest computerized national identity cards. This rule is very strictly enforced and if any employee is found to be in violation of this rule then this bears serious consequences. Company Budget A budget is simple a statement of expected results stated in numbers and figures. The creation or development of such a number is a very tiresome and tedious procedure at Mobilink. The top brass of the company in consultation with the parent firm of Orascom is responsible for the budget creation of Mobilink. Management by Objectives The company is very much managed objectively. This is evident in the fact that all promotions are based on results, and target achievements. The promotions from the post of associate level 2 to associate level 1 is done after complete and through evaluation of the employees performance over a period of two years where he is judged not only on how much business he has brought into the company but also how he has managed to satisfy both internal and external customers on the assigned tasks. His over all outlook towards his job responsibilities are also a good bench mark as to the direction senior management sees him taking. Over all the level of enthusiasm is seen in the individual who is considered for promotion. For motivation, the company engages different professionals who develop leadership skills and team building and trust relationship amongst the many departments of the company. The company is renowned for the many training seminars and motivational workshops that it conducts for its employees. It is not very uncommon for Mobilink employees to travel not other countries, especially those countries where Orascom Telcom has a presence for the training and development needs of its key personnel. Also the company makes use of the various training institutes that exist in the country for professional trainings and employee development. Management is also very flexible towards those employees that want to pursue advanced or higher education during evenings and weekends. In fact certain departmental heads have been know to encourage their sub-ordinates to enroll in masters program and further their careers. Compensation Planning for Employees Compensation is basically what the company pays someone to entice them to continue to do work for the company – it is a critical facet of any managers job. Compensation includes many things beyond straight salary. It also includes benefits, perks, stock options, etc. The company has to balance what these cost against what the employees perceives as their value, and that varies by employee. Mobilink is well known in the corporate world for its very competitive remuneration and fringe benefits. These go a long way in keeping the employees loyal as well as motivated toward achievement of group and individual goals. This ultimately helps the organization grow ten fold. Mobilink measures compensation levels against other employees in the company, against other employees in other companies in similar positions, and against performances It then reevaluates the pay scale and if need be, a revision is carried out. Also Mobilink determines salary ranges for existing positions and adjusts those periodically to compensate for economic factors (cost of living changes, inflation) and competitive pressures (industry demand for that type of employee, profit margins, and of course the employee performance). Finally Mobilink complies with government regulations regarding discrimination, contractor versus employee determinations, and union and other contractual obligations. Organizing Organizing is the second function in the management cycle. Once strategic planning and management planning are implemented, organizing to get the job done is carried out. Organizing can be defined as the act of deploying the resources needed to achieve an identified goal or attain a desired result, including human resources. Principles of Organizing Organizing is based on the following five principles: Unity of command Span of control Delegation of authority Homogeneous assignment Flexibility Organizing Process The organizing process involves these five steps: Determining the tasks to be accomplished Subdividing major tasks into individual activities Assigning specific activities to individuals Providing necessary resources Designing the organizational relationships needed. In MOBILINK, these organizing activities flow from the top of the organization. The top management is concerned about how their plans are formally organized and every effort is made to maintain a strategic control in the organization. Qualities of a good organizer Management thinks strategically about their work while always keeping the final goal in mind and continually making contributions to the goal. This is especially important in the over all growth of the individual employees and ultimately of the company. A qualities working atmosphere include: Imagination Sense of Humor Blurred vision of a better world An organized personality Strong ego/sense of oneself A free, open mind, and political relativity Ability to create the new out of the old Organizational Structure The organizational structure of the company is that there is a board of directors. This board consist of the CEO and other top ranking officials of the Orascom Telecom group of companies in the world. Then Mobilink has the CEO, After him are the chiefs, below them are the directors for individual functional areas of the company. Below these there are the senior managers that look into coordination of overlapping activities and functions of the organization. Then there exist the managers, below these are the assistant managers, the associate levels one and two report to the assistant managers and finally there are field staff in the sales and marketing department. Mobilink consist of more then 650 franchise based distributors through out the country. The number of these distributions is growing with each passing quarter as newer locations and cities are brought into the Mobilink network. Organizational Chart Levels of Management The levels of management and supervisors as defined and developed at Mobilink is as follow. The directors act as direct supervisors for the middle and lower level managers. Above the directors there exist the chiefs that are highly specialized in their functions and demand through compliance of practices and procedures from their employees. Above the chiefs is the CEO who is steering the direction of Mobilink. Structures: Centralized versus Decentralized, Line versus Staff In MOBILINK, working productively and developing feelings of cooperation and effectiveness is one of the key most aspects of the staff functions. This means that not only right people for the right jobs are hired but also developing staff with in the organization so that they can become better managers and grow in their respective fields. In MOBILINK, There are four primary elements in designing an organizational structure: 1. Job specifications what each division/office/unit is responsible for 2. Departmentalization the grouping of jobs and responsibilities in common sectors with the objective of achieving coordination 3. Span of control a definition of how many job roles should be in each unit and which roles require coordination by a unit manager 4. Delegation of authority assigning the right to make decisions without having to obtain approval from a supervisor The resulting organizational structure will vary according to these four elements. An organization with decentralized authority and very heterogeneous departments will appear very different from one with centralized authority and a very homogeneous product. Practical Aspects of Directing Teams When directing a small team it is important to structure the tasks to be performed. Goals should be easily understood by everyone and tasks broken down so that they appear achievable. Nothing will be more demoralizing for ther team than setting them a task which seems impossible. Therefore it is important to define a task as a series of small but significant steps which seem realistic. As the person performs these broken-down steps he/she will still feel that something tangible has been accomplished, and the next step toward finishing will become clear. Goal analysis It is probable that the team leader will want to set goals for the team or project. One such goal may be to improve communications amongst the team. Clearly there will be many different interpretations of this goal by different team members. Goal analysis seeks to remove this ambiguity. Goal analysis should define an abstract goal in terms of concrete criteria, which when met will clearly demonstrate that the goal has been achieved. The criteria should be expressed in terms of actions or results rather than abstractions (which may be ambiguous). There are 5 steps: Write down the goal. At this stage the goal is an abstract thing, and it is important not to worry too much about how the goal is written down a rough definition or idea will suffice. Without editing or judging describe the goal. Get team members to quickly describe what they understand by the goal. At this stage all suggestions should be noted down no ideas are wrong or stupid. This is similar to the technique of brainstorming. Sort. Sort out the ideas generated by 2 into an ordered or prioritised list which defines the goal. At this stage it may become apparent that some ideas are abstractions but are still important. If this is the case use steps 1 and 2 to clearly define these. State each action or result obtained from the step above Make the team read and try to understand the list from step just above this. Test the statements. Ask the question When these all statements have been demonstrated to be true, will the goal have been achieved? Test each statement in turn for relevance. If the answer is yes then the goal has been defined. Factors in Leadership There are many factors involved with good leadership. We view how each of these factors is involved with the way a leader leads. Motivation The key to holding the team together is motivation. In simple terms, motivation can be considered as the amount of effort an individual is willing to put into their work. Therefore, it is important to ensure that any team is highly motivated towards their work. A lack of motivation in any member of a team can have a negative affect, reducing the groups effectiveness and possibly leading to the de-motivation of others. Given the fact that different people are motivated in different ways, the problem facing someone in the role of leader is to create an environment in which each individual fulfils their potential. It is important to highlight the major influences in the motivation of people. According to the influential motivator-hygiene theory, motivation occurs when people have job satisfaction. Job satisfaction can be improved by increasing opportunities for: Achievement Recognition Responsibility Career advancement While not increasing job satisfaction, improvements in the following areas can lessen job dissatisfaction: Supervision Salary Working conditions Six Steps to Motivation Utilized by Mobilink The following steps can be taken to help achieve and maintain group motivation: Provide opportunities for group members to become acquainted. Indicate the importance/value of the group. Make people feel they are important.